Furthermore, cultural diversity may contribute to outcomes less able to be defined or quantified but still with significant economic value. General community vibrancy, resilience, and adaptability may be underpinned by multiculturalism, making it easier to meet and effectively deal with unforeseen challenges.

However, as noted by Gillian Trigg, the myriad benefits of cultural diversity are disrupted by racism and discrimination. These challenge social cohesion in Australian society. Higher reported rates of discrimination and racism are felt by Middle Eastern and Islamic populations.[20] According to Goldin and co-researchers, [21} the short-term impacts of cultural diversity on regional development and economic growth, are dependent on the treatment of migrant populations, and their opportunities for social mobility.

Research considerations

Ongoing research needs to distinguish between immigration per se and cultural diversity. It is possible to define this subject as ethnic, cultural, linguistic, and faith-based diversity, as the long-term outcome of multicultural immigration programs. It should also take into account that the benefits and costs of cultural diversity may be experienced differently by various groups. For instance, Syrett and Sepulveda note lower-income neighbourhoods often host first and second-generation international migrants. These neighbourhoods may experience the costs of poor social cohesion, such as a lack of trust and polarisation with established host communities.[7]

Footnotes and references

^{1. Markus, A. (2015), Mapping Social Cohesion: The Scanlon Foundation surveys 2015}

^{2. Roy Morgan Research, October 2015, http://www.roymorgan.com/findings/6507-australian-immigration-population-october-2015-201510200401.}

^{3. Nieuwenhyson and Storer overview much of this, in Nieuwenhuyson, J., Storer, D., (2011) The economic advantages of cultural diversity in Australia, Prepared for NSW Government and Community Relations Commission.}

^{4. Syrett, S., Sepulveda, L., (2011) 'Realising the diversity dividend: population diversity and urban economic development,' Environment and Planning A, 43(2),}

^{5. Kitching, J., Smallbone, D., Athayde, R., (2009) 'Ethnic diasporas and business competitiveness: Minority-owned enterprises in London', Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 35(4)}

^{6. Florida, R. (2008) Who’s Your City?: How the Creative Economy Is Making Where You Live the Most Important Decision of Your Life, Basic Books, New York.}

^{7. UNESCO (2009) Investing in Cultural Diversity and International Dialogue, UNESCO.}

^{8. Department of Education and Training (2015) Research Snapshot: Export income to Australia from international education activity in 2014, June, Australian Government, Canberra.}

^{9. Milem, J. (2003). 'The educational benefits of diversity: Evidence from multiple sectors,' in Chang, M., Witt, D., Jones, J., Hakuta, K. (eds.), Compelling interest: Examining the evidence on racial dynamics in higher education, Palo Alto, Stanford University Press, 126-169.}

^{10. Qian, H., Acs Z., Stough, R. (2013) 'Regional systems of entrepreneurship: the nexus of human capital, knowledge and new firm formation,' Journal of Economic Geography, 13(4), 559-587.}

^{11. Niebuhr, A. (2010) 'Migration and innovation: Does cultural diversity matter for regional R&D activity?' Papers in Regional Science, Wiley Blackwell, 89(3)}

^{12. Florida, R., (2002) The Rise of the Creative Class, Basic Books, New York.}

^{13. Saxenian, A., (2011) Brain Circulation: How High Skill Immigration Makes Everyone Better Off, Brookings Institute Paper.}

^{14. Gould, J. (2015) 'How arts organisations can reap the benefits of cultural diversity.'}

^{http://theconversation.com/how-arts-organisations-can-reap-the-benefits-of-cultural-diversity-35914.}

^{15. Fainstein, S., Powers, J., (2007) 'Tourism and New York's ethnic diversity: an underutilised resource?' in Rath, J. (ed.), Tourism, Ethnic Diversity, and the City, Routledge, New York.}

^{16. Collins, J., Kunz, P., (2007) 'Ethnic entrepreneurs, ethnic precincts and tourism: the case of Sydney Australia' in Richards, G., Wilson, J., (eds.) Tourism, Creativity and Development, Routledge, London, 201-214}

^{17. Hoffman, L. (2003) 'Revalorizing the inner city: tourism and regulation in Harlem,' in Hoffman, L., Fainstein, S., Judd, D. (eds.), Cities and Visitors: Regulating people, markets and city space, Oxford: Blackwell.}

^{18. Dandy, J., Pe-Pua, R. (2013) Research into the Current and Emerging Drivers for Social Cohesion, Social Division, and Conflict in Multicultural Australia. For Joint Commonwealth, State and Territory Research Advisory Committee.}

^{19. Crisp R., Turner, R. (2011) 'Cognitive adaptation to the experience of social and cultural diversity,' Psychological Bulletin, 137}

^{20. Trigg, G. (2014), Social cohesion in a multicultural Australia: The importance of human rights, speech presented at Affinity Friendship and Dialogue Iftar Dinner, Sydney.}

^{21. Goldin, I., Cameron, G., Balarajan, M., (2010) Exceptional People: How Migration Shaped Our World and Will Define Our Future, Princeton University Press.}